History of Debate in Rome
The history of debate in Rome is essentially the history of the Senate, and the origins of the Senate are unclear. According to Roman foundational mythology, the Roman Senate was first established by the first king of Rome, Romulus, to act as an advisory body to the king.
During the monarchy period of the Roman monarchy, the Roman Senate held consilium, meaning that they had the power to advise the king. This word comes from the Latin word consulere, meaning "to consult." The Senate also had auctoritas, or the right to ratify political decisions. Despite this, during the monarchy and the early republic, the Roman Senate had little de jure power. However, during the era of the Republic, while the two consuls were the ones in charge, the Senators had more prestige and experience. Therefore, while the advice of the Senate was not legally binding, many consuls chose to comply with their advice.
During the later years of the early republic and throughout the middle republic, the Roman Senate became far more powerful. The Senate during this time became "a self-perpetuating, automatically constituted body, independent of the annual magistrates, and a recognized factor in the Roman constitution, with extensive powers." Senatorial decisions, called the Senatus Consultum, had to be obeyed by magistrates. The Senate was the primary governing body of Rome, and acquired "the right to assign duties to the magistrates, to determine the two provinces to be entrusted to the consuls, to prolong a magistrate’s period of office, and to appoint senatorial commissions to help magistrates to organize conquered territory." Other powers included a monopoly on all foreign diplomacy except for declaration of war and ratification of treaties, arbitration on "disputes among Italian communities, provincials, or client-states," and control over Rome's financial system.
The Senate's power declined with the rise of the Gracchi brothers and military leaders such as Marius and Sulla. It did not disappear as an entity, however, and while its power was decisively curtailed, it held onto a certain degree of its old prestige and some power that the emperor allowed it to have. Even when Emperor Constantine I the Great built his new city of Constantinople, he founded another Senate, testifying to its prestige and necessity per the Roman constitution. The Roman Senate is not mentioned again after 580 B.C.
The form of the Senate changed many times across its 1,000+ year existence. Here are some important changes along with important members of the Roman Senate:
- 494 B.C.: Tribune of the Plebs established to protect the plebians. The magistracy was legally protected from physical harm and possessed ius auxiliandi, allowing them to save any plebian from a patrician magistrate.
- 449 B.C.: The Tribune of the Plebs acquires ius intercessionis, the right to veto any magistrate's proposal. Number of elected tribunes increased from 2 to 10.
- 443 B.C. The office of Censor established. Censors started as magistrates who registered citizens and their property but later became far more powerful, obtaining the right to enforce moral conduct, amongst other powers.
- 367 B.C.: The office of praetor established. Praetors were judicial magistrates with authority in equity cases who also held a great amount of authority when the consuls were absent, amongst other powers. Praetors' edicts, announced as part of their duty as civil administrators, would prove important in adapting Roman law to "new conditions and . . . the principles of equity and good faith."
- 351 B.C.: Plebians allowed to become censors.
- 337 B.C.: Plebians allowed to become praetors
- 133 B.C.: Tiberius Gracchus has the People's Assembly remove his fellow Tribune of the Plebs, Octavius, arguing that a tribune that did not follow the interests of the people ceased to be a tribune.
- 123 B.C.: Gaius Gracchus begins his reforms, undermining the power of the Senate.
- 121 B.C.: The Senate passes the first Senatus Consultum Ultimum, or "Last Decree of the Senate," in order to crush Gaius Gracchus, effectively declaring martial law.
- 63 B.C.: Cicero exposes the Catiline Conspiracy.
Sources:
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Senate-Roman-history
https://www.thecollector.com/roman-senator-daily-life/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/censor-ancient-Roman-official
https://www.britannica.com/topic/praetor
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius-Sempronius-Gracchus
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gaius-Sempronius-Gracchus
https://www.worldhistory.org/article/861/cicero--the-catiline-conspiracy/